Sudan located in north east Africa has suffered much turbulence since achieving its independence from Britain-Egyptian rule in 1956. According to reports Sudan has seen relatively only 11 years of peace since its independence and in recent years has been the home of unimaginable atrocities particularly in the region of Darfur.
Darfur is located in southern Sudan, the people who are 90% Muslim are a mix of Black African and Arabs. Composed mainly of the farming tribes -- the Fur, the Zaghawa, the Masalit, camel nomads in the north and cattle herdsmen in the south who are mostly Arabs.
Years of conflict have plagued the area due to fierce competition for resources. This includes conflicts between herdsmen and farmers over land; political neglect by the Khartoum government; the spread of "Arabization" from Libya and other neighboring countries.
Darfur began to attract media coverage in February of 2003 when a rebel group known as the SLA (Sudan Liberation Army) launched an attack against the Sudanese government. In previous years SLA had called to attention to the Khartoum government’s disregard for the area whom they claim fail to supply basic public needs such as roads, schools, hospitals and other infrastructures as well as the issue of continued poor representation in top government posts.
The Sudanese Liberation Army primarily is comprised of the Fur, Zaghawa and Masalit tribes. Their allies include the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) a small rebel group whose birth comes as a direct result of former speaker Al Turabi’s removal from office and imprisonment.
PBS reports show that Sudan has an estimated population of 39 million, 52 percent of which are black, and 39 percent Arab. Seventy percent of Sudan's population is Muslim. Animists and Christians, who for the most part live in southern Sudan, account for about 30 percent
The government has been reluctant to respond the protests of the SLA as most of their supporters are the rich minority Arabs.
Arabic is the official language of Sudan and their government has repeatedly attempted to impose Islamic Sharia law since 1983. By the late 1990s, Sudan gained much notoriety as a haven for Islamic fundamentalist radicals primarily due to their willingness to accommodate Osama bin laden, until 1994 when Khartoum regime asked him to leave in efforts to seek warmer relations internationally.
The domination of the ruling elite class in Sudan perfectly expresses the Marxist concepts of a ruling elite whose illusionary values are presented and imposed upon society as in the best common interest of the people.
In 1999 Sudan began its oil exports upon the completion of an oil pipeline that extends from the southern oil fields through Khartoum to the Red Sea. Algeria, Pakistan and Russia as well as China (a leading supplier of arms to Sudan) are considered the top four recipients of Sudan crude oil exports.
Oil exports attracted certain political alliances and other foreign interests in Sudan. The Khartoum government controls the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and the Border Intelligence Division.
The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) originally led by John Garang historically has fought Africa's longest-running wars, between the Khartoum government and Sudan's Christian and Animist south, taking the lives of some 2 million people and displacing millions.
The Border Intelligence Division a battalion portion of the government army commonly referred to as the JanJaweed by the world at large is deemed responsible for the destruction of more than 400 villages as well as uncountable rapes and beheadings. The Janjaweed are reported to target the Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa tribes and continue to destroy villages through fires and murders.
Louis Althusser in his article on Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA’s) refers to the following as Repressive State Apparatuses: the government, the administration, the army, the police, the courts, prisons and so forth. Repressive State Apparatuses are defined on a dual level “functioning massively and predominantly by repression (including physical repression) and by ideology”. Althusser goes on to say that “the ISA’s may be not only the stake, but also the site of class struggle…”. It is clear from his definition that authorities in Sudan are skilled in the use of ideological apparatuses “functioning by violence” to enforce and keep power in place. Reports state “Attacks usually follow a pattern: Government planes bomb villages , then, within hours, Janjaweed ride in on horses or camels to pillage homes and rape and murder civilians.” Although the Sudanese government staunchly maintains that the Janjaweed are acting independently, without government support.
In Sanjukta Ghosh’s article Confusing Exotic, one statement notes “there is a long history in the United Stated of using race as a factor in establishing cultural, economic and political membership in the country” she goes on to say that “media producers often point to the low ratio of these minority groups in the larger population and their lack of disposable income, which makes these groups irrelevant or marginally relevant to advertisers.” Even though she is referring to media representation considering the current interrelation between government and economic structure it is easy to see that race and resources play a large role in determining the equilibrium of power in societies.
The harrowing tales of vicious rapes in Darfur which includes branding of raped women by the Janjaweed army shows the utter disregard for the lives of those whom they consider inferior. The ideologies of prejudices which brands or reduces women to sexual objects are deep rooted issues in consciousness of the male psyche. The repercussion of ill balanced and prejudiced representations in media not only negatively influence the perception of world wide audiences but is also a comprehensive reflection of past ideas and beliefs systems in the human race.
Herman and Chomsky in their article A Propaganda Model state “The mass media serve as a system for communication messages and symbols to the general populace. It is their function to amuse, entertain, and inform and to inculcate individuals with the values, beliefs and codes of behavior that will integrate them into the institutional structure of the larger society”.
During the first term of President George Bush (2000-2004) he reinstated a multilateral peace process in Sudan which was in alignment with the wishes of Christian groups whom offer a strong base of evangelical support for Bush.
Basically the agreement opened access for US companies to conduct business in Sudan, as well as add them to its new list African allies of Chad and Libya.
Incidentally, since the early 1990s, Christian groups in the United States have rallied in support of John Garang’s constituency in south Sudan. The Samaritan Purse, a Christian relief and development organization headed by Franklin Graham has provided the area with significant humanitarian assistance since 1993. Graham and other evangelical Christian leaders have become an influential lobby for U.S. action in southern Sudan.
Despite all that had been happening in Darfur, George Bush did not speak publicly about the situation until 2004.
McChesney in his article notes “The close connection of the rise of the global media system to the global capitalist political economy becomes especially clear in two ways. First, as suggested above, the global media system is the direct result of the sort of the “neo-liberal” deregulatory policies and agreements that have helped form global market for goods and services”.
He goes on to state that “the global media system play a much more explicit role in generating a passive, depoliticized populace that prefers personal consumption to social understanding and activity, a mass more likely to take orders than to make waves.”
Neo-liberalism is a key aspect that must be considered when examining the current economic and political state of Sudan.
Herman and Chomsky note “In countries where the levers of power are in the hands of a state bureaucracy, the monopolistic control over the media, often supplemented by official censorship, makes it clear that the media serve the ends of dominant elite.”
The media’s tendency to down play or provide limited coverage for international affairs is nothing new. Political disposition has always been the deciding factor influencing the quantity and quality of media coverage. Herman and Chomsky cite several events in history such as the US government support of Turkish martial law government from its inception in 1980 and the US business communities’ warmth toward regimes that are avidly anti communism, advance foreign investments, stifle unions and steadfastly support US foreign policy. Media that choose to feature Turkish violence elicited flak from government and businesses for indulging in such a crusade. In Poland, on the contrary, protest over political prisoners was a noble cause because it provided an opportunity to gain politically while the shooting down of a Libyan civilian airliner in 1973 led to no out cries in the west.
The 2003 attack by the SLA was followed by a deadly response from the Khartoum government who up till that point had not taken the SLA seriously. This event led to a gradual response from the outer world. The USA has reportedly played a primary role in attempting to resolve the crisis drafting the first UN security council resolution and contributing more than 250 million dollars in humanitarian aid in 2004 – more than any other country. The African Union comprised of countries including Nigeria, Rwanda, Egypt, Ghana and Chad sent soldiers over to Darfur after international pressure by the United Nations. The African Union however has limited powers in Sudan and generally serves to monitor and report violations of the numerous cease fire agreements which have been in enacted but never implemented.
In April 2004 the United Nations began count of the casualties occurring Darfur, 70,000 people were counted dead mostly civilians. The United Nations Security Council, a 15 member group responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security imposed security resolutions on Darfur in 2004 but not surprisingly U.N. Security Council members China, Pakistan and Russia,( one of the five permanent council members with veto power), joined together in abstaining from voting on the resolution.
Changes in the Sudan political structure continued to occur through out the year 2005. John Garang was sworn in as first vice president, this appointment gave a large degree of autonomy to the south, but by August 2005 he was killed in a plane crash and succeeded by Salva Kiir, sparking more fatal conflicts. In October an autonomous southern government was formed, reports indicate that the administration is dominated by former rebels.
In 2006 reports in April estimated the death toll at 7,000 per month. There has been an increase in ongoing violence in the following months, despite the Darfur Peace Agreement, signed May 5, 2006, by the rebel group, the Sudan Liberation Movement (led by Mini Menawi) and the Sudanese Government, the deal however was rejected by two smaller rebel groups.
Over the past years many NGO’s such as Catholic Relief Services, Care International, Doctors Without Borders, the International Rescue Committee, Oxfam, the Red Cross and World Vision attempted to provide food, shelter, water and medical attention for more than 2 million displaced people but these efforts are often thwarted by assaults on workers, water shortages and vicious attacks led by Khartoum government and the Janjaweed. Overcrowded camps were thousands of displaced survivors live are plagued by battle disease, dehydration and starvation.
No doubt many organizations will continue to support research and seek help for Darfurians while at the same time further championing their own agendas. Christianity for instance is a questionable pursuit in a country whose native culture does not include the English language or Christian religion. Converting of a largely muslin nation into Christians will not provide the economic relief nor restore political imbalance or end the violent crimes suffered by those in the area.
Mass crimes against humanity have played a large role in countries such as Rwanda, China, Cambodia, East Timor, Bosnia, Serbia, Kosovo, the now Democratic Republic of Congo as well as countless others world wide. Our attention to these matters have been systematically ignored, marginalized or exploited by media.
Horkheimer and Adorno state that “All mass culture under monopoly is identical, and the contours of its skeleton, the conceptual armature fabricated by monopoly are beginning to stand out…” Herman and Chomsky state “In sum, the dominant media firms are quite large businesses; they are controlled by very wealthy people or by managers who are subject to sharp constraints by owners and other market-profit-oriented forces; and they all are closely interlocked and have important common interest, with other major corporations, banks, and government.”
Media is a concrete reflection of mass culture, an integrated display of our history, attitudes, perceptions and current social practice. Our institutions particularly government, religion, education are embedded into the fabric of all media and can be perceived through the social, political and economic forces that control media outlets. Although media theories attempt to categorize and examine the effects of media institutions, these theories have practical applications when considering complex issues occurring within our world. The situation in Darfur is a tragic demonstration of what happens in a worse case scenario when power is so unevenly distributed in both politics and economy. All aspects of mass media – especially the concentration of financial power by advertisers as well as resulting ethical practices become significant signals to the overall stability and health of nations.
Ultimately, we must learn to use these theories to not only interpret the role and effects of media but also as measure of how well we maintain delicate the balance of life.
SOURCES:
http://www.pbs.org/
http://news.bbc.co.uk
http://www.newyorker.com/
http://www.npr.org/
http://www.globefordarfur.org/
http://web.amnesty.org
http://www.americanprogressaction.org/
http://www.crisisgroup.org
http://www.splmtoday.com/
http://www.samaritanspurse.org/
http://www.eia.doe.gov
http://www.darfurinfo.org/
http://www.darfurdiaries.org
http://www.sudanreeves.org/Article104.html
Other Reading:
Althusser, Louis. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses. Media and
Cultural Studies. Ed. Meenakshi Durham and Douglas Kellner. MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006. 79-88.
Chomsky, Noam and Edward Herman. A Propaganda Model. Media and
Cultural Studies. Ed. Meenakshi Durham and Douglas Kellner. MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006. 257 – 294.
Engles, Fredrich & Karl Marx. The Ruling Class and Ruling Ideas. Media and
Cultural Studies. Ed. Meenakshi Durham and Douglas Kellner. MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006. 9-12.
Ghosh, Sanjukta. “Con-fusing” Exotica. Gender, Race, and Class in Media. CA:
Sage Publications, 2nd edition. 2002.
Hooks, Bell. Eating and the Other: Desire and Resistance. Media and
Cultural Studies. Ed. Meenakshi Durham and Douglas Kellner. MA:
Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006. 366 – 380.
Horkheimer, Marx and Theodore Adorno. The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as
Mass Deception. Media and Cultural Studies. Ed. Meenakshi Durham and Douglas Kellner. MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006. 41-72.
McChesney, Rick .The Media System Goes Global. Rich Media, Poor
Democracy. NY: New Press, 2000.
